One of the features of written academic English that gives it its greater complexity is longer sentences, with more frequent use of subordinate clauses. A clause is part of a sentence and a subordinate clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Relative clauses, both defining and non-defining, are a kind of subordinate clause. Defining ones tell us which thing or person is being referred to, or what kind of thing or person the writer or speaker means. Non-defining ones just add extra, non-essential information about the person or thing being referred to. This Learning Object will provide you with the rules about their use and show you ways that they can sometimes be shortened or replaced by noun phrases to create a more concise style.
Objectives
To provide practice in recognising the two kinds of relative clause
To present the rules concerning the different punctuation to use with defining and non-definingrelative clauses
To provide practice in choosing the correct relative pronoun when using relative clauses
To provide practice in forming reduced relative clauses
To provide practice in using noun phrases as an alternative to relative clauses
Activity 1: Defining or non-defining? Omitting the relative pronoun?
The rules about using commas, using the relative pronoun “that” and omission of the relative pronoun are different with the two kinds of relative clauses: defining or non-defining.
Instruction
By doing the following two exercises, it is hoped that you will gain a greater understanding of the difference between the two kinds of relative clause and then will understand which rules to follow when you are writing your essays.
You may wish to attempt this exercise by referring to the grammatical knowledge you have already acquired. Alternatively, you may like to follow this link Relative Clauses Grammar Rules to refresh your memory of the differences before you do the exercises. Good luck!
Exercise 1. Put a tick in the box if the sentences below are defining relative clauses and leave the box empty if they are non-defining relative clauses.
The sentences containing non-defining relative clauses are numbers: 1, 2, 4, 8 and 12.
The non-defining relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The clauses could be removed from the sentences and they would still make sense. The clause adds extra, non-essential information and the effect is the same as if the clause was separated from the rest of the sentence by brackets. For example, the first sentence could be rewritten as:
The meeting (which was attended by all the shareholders) came to a unanimous decision.
The sentences containing defining relative clauses are numbers: 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11. In these sentences the extra information is essential information, as it answers the question: “Which one(s)?” The clause is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Exercise 2. In the following defining relative clauses, put a tick if the relative pronoun (‘that’, ‘who’ which’ etc.) can be omitted. If it cannot be omitted, leave the box empty. Remember it is only possible to omit the relative pronoun if it is the object of a defining relative clause.
It is possible to omit the relative pronoun in sentences numbered: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9 and 11. In all these sentences the relative pronoun is the object and, as these are defining relative clauses, can be left out.
1.) Another system is the complaints procedure members of the public can initiate against police officers.
2.) The oil crisis alone could not have destroyed the confidence capitalists felt during the golden years.
4.) The explanation you gave for your absence at the board meeting was unacceptable.
5.) The policy the government pursued at that time was an example of ‘laissez faire’ economics.
7.) The arguments Cullens (2010:19) puts forward to criticise any approach dependent on greater investment are convincing.
9.) Galileo discovered four satellites we now call the Galilean satellites.
11.) The task therefore observes the principal of human sense Donaldson (1978) has so clearly brought to our attention.
In the other sentences numbered: 3, 6, 8, 10 and 12, the relative pronoun is the subject of the defining relative clause, so cannot be omitted. Sentence number 6 may have caused you difficulty. The verb is in the passive voice (“The report that was eventually submitted by the researchers”) but the “report that” is still the subject of this passive verb.
Activity 2: Choosing the correct relative pronoun/adverb
When you write a sentence with a relative clause, you need to know which of the relative pronouns: “who“, “whom“, “whose“, “which“, “that“, or relative adverbs, “when“, “where” and “why“, to use. We have just seen that it is not possible to use “that” in a non-defining relative clause. Most people avoid using the object form of “who“, which is “whom“, when speaking, but it is sometimes used in writing. However, the possessive form “whose” is used both in speaking and writing. In the exercises that follow, you are going to practise selecting the correct relative pronoun for a number of sentences, which come from academic English sources. You may wish to try these exercises by referring to the grammatical knowledge you have already acquired. Alternatively, you may like to follow this link Choosing Relative Pronouns to refresh your memory of the rules, before you do the exercises. Good luck!
Instruction
Choose the correct relative pronoun from the drop down list to fill the gap in each sentence containing a relative clause.
1.) For students ______ background is more creative the treatment of the core subject areas would be more descriptive.
1.) For students whose background is more creative the treatment of the core subject areas would be more descriptive.
The possessive relative pronoun is needed here (the background of the students).
2.) Neither political system could rely with confidence on those to _____ it entrusted the task of educating the peasants.
2.) Neither political system could rely with confidence on those to whom it entrusted the task of educating the peasants.
We need “whom” here because it follows the preposition “to”.
3.) The court must be satisfied that all persons _______ consent is required understand the legal effect of the adoption.
3.) The court must be satisfied that all persons whose consent is required understand the legal effect of the adoption.
The possessive relative pronoun is needed here (the consent of the persons).
4.) Finally, one of the students with ______ I had worked a couple of summers previously came back to me, just before I left, to discuss his third year project.
4.) Finally, one of the students with whom I had worked a couple of summers previously came back to me, just before I left, to discuss his third year project.
We need “whom” here because it follows the preposition “with”.
5.) However, in the fifteen to twenty-four age group, many of _____ had probably benefited from education since 1975, the figures were 7.7 and 24.7 per cent respectively.
5.) However, in the fifteen to twenty-four age group, many of whom had probably benefited from education since 1975, the figures were 7.7 and 24.7 per cent respectively.
We use “whom” after “many of” in a non-defining relative clause.
6.) In Bavaria, most of ______ was overwhelmingly Catholic, by far the greatest unrest was provoked by the crude attempt to remove crucifixes from school classrooms.
6.) In Bavaria, most of which was overwhelmingly Catholic, by far the greatest unrest was provoked by the crude attempt to remove crucifixes from school classrooms.
We use “which” after “most of” in non-defining relative clauses.
7.) It is an area of Belfast _______ routine policing is possible as a result of the virtual absence of political violence.
7.) It is an area of Belfast where routine policing is possible as a result of the virtual absence of political violence.
We need “where” after a place in this defining relative clause.
8.) This is described as the factor _____ “means everything” to the decision about whether or not to proceed.
8.) This is described as the factor which “means everything” to the decision about whether or not to proceed.
We need “which” as it is the subject of the verb in this defining relative clause (“that” would also have been possible here).
9.) The third reason ____ Dzerzhinsky was sent off to distant Siberia was purely political, and had little to do with the railways.
9.) The third reason why Dzerzhinsky was sent off to distant Siberia was purely political, and had little to do with the railways.
We need to use “why” here because it explains ‘why‘ and follows “the reason“.
10.) It is very unusual to find a tone-unit boundary at a place _____ the only grammatical boundary is between words.
10.) It is very unusual to find a tone-unit boundary at a place where the only grammatical boundary is between words.
We need to use “where” here because it follows “a place“.
11.) Since 1983, the year _____ the first of a series of large scale mass media campaigns started, the average annual fall has been 2.54%.
11.) Since 1983, the year when the first of a series of large scale mass media campaigns started, the average annual fall has been 2.54%.
We need to use “when” here because we are referring to a time (“the year when“).
12.) The latter makes ______ is already an internally homogeneous organization even more enclosed and protective.
12.) The latter makes what is already an internally homogeneous organization even more enclosed and protective.
We need to use “what” here because it means “the thing that“. It follows “makes” here, which is a verb not a noun.
Activity 3: Reduced relative clauses
We have already seen how it is possible to omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of a defining relative clause. In most defining relative clauses where the relative pronoun is the subject, it is possible to omit the relative pronoun and any auxilary verb used to form a tense, then change the verb to a present participle (“-ing“), with an active meaning, or a past participle (usually “-ed“) with a passive meaning. These are called reduced relative clauses and are particularly common in academic English (Biber et al. 1999:606).
Follow this link Reduced Relative Clauses for further explanation of when it is possible to change a relative clause to a reduced relative clause and how to do so.
Instruction
Rewrite the following sentences so that the relative clauses become reduced relative clauses. Some are active in meaning and will need a present participle, others will need a past participle and the meaning will be passive.
1.) The French verse which is recited to Mrs. Belville is from Voltaire’s adaptation “Nanine”.
2.) Some writing which is called art criticism will be helpful, some will not.
3.) The British reader is likely to have been spared certain of the varieties of suffering which are spoken of in the writings of Kundera and Klima.
4.) Whether a top-down or bottom-up approach is used, this categorization often obscures similarities between items that have been placed in separate categories.
5.) The data and data structures that have been identified can be mapped on to conventional computer files or clerical files and not necessarily databases.
6.) “Push” factors refer to the difficulties of earning a living that were described in the previous chapter.
7.) All the managers’ time was spent on the people who were planning to stay on, so the ones that were planning to leave at the end of the year did not take part in performance appraisal meetings.
8.) The integral (6.24) involves two continuous functions that are monotonically decreasing for positive arguments.
9.) The forms which have been described by King and Williams are characteristic of tideless seas, such as the Mediterranean and the Baltic.
10.) Any letters which contain results and which have arrived late will be forwarded to your home addresses.
11.) None of the clinical symptoms that were recognised as symptoms of primary HIV infection differed between HIV positive drug users and those negative for HIV.
12.) Anyone who will be taking the IELTS examination next month must pay and register at reception before 5 o’clock today.
1.) The French verse recited to Mrs. Belville is from Voltaire’s adaptation “Nanine”. (“which is” omitted)
2.) Some writing called art criticism will be helpful, some will not. (“which is” omitted)
3.) The British reader is likely to have been spared certain of the varieties of suffering spoken of in the writings of Kundera and Klima. (“which are” omitted)
4.) Whether a top-down or bottom-up approach is used, this categorization often obscures similarities between items placed in separate categories. (“that have been” omitted)
5.) The data and data structures identified can be mapped on to conventional computer files or clerical files and not necessarily databases. (“that have been” omitted)
6.) “Push” factors refer to the difficulties of earning a living described in the previous chapter. (“that were” omitted)
7.) All the managers’ time was spent on the people planning to stay on, so the ones planning to leave at the end of the year did not take part in performance appraisal meetings.(both “who were” and “that were” omitted)
8.) The integral (6.24) involves two continuous functions monotonically decreasing for positive arguments. (“that are” omitted)
9.) The forms described by King and Williams are characteristic of tideless seas, such as the Mediterranean and the Baltic. (“which have been” omitted)
10.) Any letters containing results and which have arrived late will be forwarded to your home addresses. (“which” omitted, “contain” becomes “containing“)
11.) None of the clinical symptoms recognised as symptoms of primary HIV infection differed between HIV positive drug users and those negative for HIV. (“that were” omitted)
12.) Anyone taking the IELTS examination next month must pay and register at reception before 5 o’clock today. (“who will be” omitted)
Would you like to review the main points?
In this Learning Object we have focused on relative clauses. There are two kinds: defining and non-defining. Defining relative clauses add essential information and answer the question, “Which one(s)?” In defining clauses it is possible to use “that” instead of the relative pronoun or adverb, although if “that” or “which” replaces “where“, another preposition is needed in the sentence. A defining relative clause does not need to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
It is possible to omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of a defining relative clause.
On the other hand, a non-defining relative clause adds an extra, non-essential piece of information to a sentence. In non-defining relative clauses, the relative pronoun or adverb cannot be replaced by “that” and the clause must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Concerning the choice of relative adverbs or pronouns, the relative adverbs “where“, “when” and “why” can be used for location, time, and the reason for something happening, respectively. All can be replaced by “that” in defining relative clauses but, as stated above, if “that” (or “which“) replaces “where” an extra preposition must be added to the sentence. We use “which” for things and “who” is used for people, and in defining relative clauses “that” is also always possible. Remember, it is not possible to use “that” in a non-defining relative clause.
In both defining and non-defining relative clauses, the object form of “who“, which is “whom“, is usually only used in formal writing, but it must be used if it directly follows a preposition. The possessive form of “who“, which is “whose“, is used usually for people.
The relative pronoun “what” is only used after a verb, never after a noun, and means “the thing(s) that“.
In non-defining relative clauses, expressions such as, “all of/most of/many of/much of/(a) few of/some of/any of/half of/each of/both of/neither of/either of/one of/two of etc.” are followed by “whom” for people and “which” for things as the subject of the verb in the relative clause.
Reduced relative clauses (also called participial phrases) are especially common in academic English. We focused on defining relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is the subject, it is possible to omit the relative pronoun and any auxiliary verbs then change the verb to a present participle (“-ing“) with an active meaning, or a past participle (regular verbs form the past participle with “-ed“) with a passive meaning.
